Ergothioneine dosing

September 23, 2023March 31, 2024 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Anterior cingulate cortex, Brainstem, Epigenetics, Hippocampus, Immune system, Limbic system, Lower brain, Memory, Stress Brain neurons, Control group, Genetic factors, Neurodegenerative disease, Prefrontal cortex

Four 2023 papers that outlined or used different ergothioneine doses, starting with a human/rodent study:

“We found that cognitive function and hippocampal neurogenesis were lower in mice fed an ERGO-free diet than in those fed the control diet. Mice fed an ERGO-free diet were orally administered ERGO (0, 2, and 20 mg/kg) for two weeks which reversed these effects.

Phosphorylated brain-derived neurotrophic factor receptor TrkB, the activated form of TrkB, was also detected in extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from serum samples of 52 volunteers who had been orally administered ERGO-containing tablets (5 mg/day for 12 weeks). The ratio of serum EV-derived phosphorylated TrkB was significantly higher in the ERGO-treated group than in the placebo-treated group and was positively correlated with both serum ERGO concentrations and several cognitive domain scores from Cognitrax.

The ratio of p-TrkB to TrkB in serum EVs was proposed as a quantitative diagnostic marker of long-term ERGO-induced cognitive improvement.”

https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-2626422/v1 “TrkB phosphorylation in serum extracellular vesicles correlates with cognitive function enhanced by ergothioneine in humans”

Human equivalents of all rodent ergothioneine doses were higher than the 5 mg/day for 12 weeks 2020 human study, cited as Reference 21. I couldn’t access that paper, so here’s its Abstract:

Effect of ergothioneine on the cognitive function improvement in healthy volunteers and mild cognitive impairment subjects – a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group comparison study

“These results indicate that continuous intake of ergothioneine improves cognitive function in healthy subjects.”

A rodent study compared effects of a fermented product with 0.1 and 1.0 mg/g (human equivalent 6 mg (1 mg x .081) x 70 kg) ergothioneine doses:

“Our present study demonstrated for the first time the preventive effect of Rice-koji fermented extracts made by Aspergillus oryzae on anxiety, impaired recognition, and nociception using a psychophysically stressed model. Our results also demonstrated preventive effects of ergothioneine (EGT) on stress-induced anxiety- and pain-like behaviors.

Daily administration of High dose Rice-koji or 0.1 mg/kg EGT decreased anxiety- and pain-like behaviors. These findings suggest that inhibitory effects of Rice-koji on psychological stress might be mediated through the actions of EGT.”

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/15/18/3989 “Preventive Roles of Rice-koji Extracts and Ergothioneine on Anxiety- and Pain-like Responses under Psychophysical Stress Conditions in Male Mice”

Here’s one of several reviews that cited a 2017 clinical trial (duplicately Reference 39 and 61 for some reason) of 5 and 25 mg ergothioneine doses:

“In this pharmacokinetic study, forty-five healthy humans received placebo, 5, or 25 mg encapsulated ergothioneine/d for 7 d and were followed up for an additional 4 weeks. Ergothioneine was rapidly absorbed and largely retained by the body, with large increases in plasma ergothioneine levels and only minimal increases (<4 %) in urinary excretion observed. While plasma levels of ergothioneine decreased when supplementation was withdrawn, levels in whole blood continued to increase in a dose–response fashion, reaching maximal levels 3 weeks after withdrawal of supplement, which were sustained at 4 weeks follow-up.

A large difference in basal concentrations of ergothioneine in whole blood was observed. Participants with the highest basal levels of ergothioneine also appeared to take up more of supplemented ergothioneine.”

https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/ergothioneine-an-underrecognised-dietary-micronutrient-required-for-healthy-ageing/92CED7FF201A9FB23BEAFF0D3EAD7316 “Ergothioneine: an underrecognised dietary micronutrient required for healthy ageing?”

Wrapping up with a deep dive into seven mushroom varieties’ compounds:

“Mushrooms contain multiple essential nutrients and health-promoting bioactive compounds, including amino acid L-ergothioneine. We compared metabolomes of fresh raw white button, crimini, portabella, lion’s mane, maitake, oyster, and shiitake mushrooms using untargeted liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC/MS)-based metabolomics.

Results indicate significantly higher concentrations of L-ergothioneine in lion’s mane and oyster mushrooms compared to the remaining five mushroom varieties, which had concentrations ranging from 1.94 ± 0.55 to 5.26 ± 1.23 mg/100 g wet weight (mean ± SD). There was also variability in concentration of L-ergothioneine between mushroom varieties of the same farm. Different numbers denote significance (p < 0.05).

Mushrooms and their bioactive extracts are considered functional foods. Mushrooms have several bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides, lectins, terpenoids, sterols, and alkaloids, among others, which may positively impact health.

Cell walls of mushrooms contain polysaccharides, including β-glucans and chitin, which positively affect health, through modulating the immune system and protecting the cardiovascular system through improvements in glucose and lipid metabolism. Effects on the cardiovascular system are also attributable to lovastatin and polyphenols, known for their lipid-lowering and antioxidant properties, respectively.

While the 1344 compounds in common among the seven mushroom varieties support some level of similarity, detection of hundreds of unique-to-mushroom-variety compounds and differences in amino acid profiles indicate that not all mushrooms are chemically comparable. Given detection of >400 unique-to-mushroom-variety compounds in lion’s mane, maitake, oyster, and shiitake mushrooms, we suggest further targeted investigations on compounds detected and potential health benefits.”

https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/12/16/2985 “Metabolomics Profiling of White Button, Crimini, Portabella, Lion’s Mane, Maitake, Oyster, and Shiitake Mushrooms Using Untargeted Metabolomics and Targeted Amino Acid Analysis”

I eat around 200 grams of mushrooms daily, having temporarily overridden the boredom of eating AGE-less chicken vegetable soup every day. I prep all the top package’s frozen umami bomb (283 grams) and half of the bottom’s fresh mushrooms (340 grams) into the soup:

It makes servings for three days, including one for prep day dinner. I’d guess from “concentrations ranging from 1.94 ± 0.55 to 5.26 ± 1.23 mg/100 g (mean ± SD)” that my daily mushroom ergothioneine dose is around 7 mg ((1.94 mg + 5.26 mg) / 2) = 3.6 mg per 100 grams x 2 (for 200 grams).

Continued in Part 2.

Reversing biological age in rats

August 12, 2023August 12, 2023 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Brain development, Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Epigenetics, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Limbic system, Lower brain, Memory, Stress, Telomeres Brain neurons, Control group, DNA methylation, Genetic factors, Happiness, Neural plasticity, Neurodegenerative disease, Prefrontal cortex, Reputations

This 2023 rodent study wrapped together findings of the original study curated in A rejuvenation therapy and sulforaphane, and the second follow-on study mentioned in Signaling pathways and aging. I’ll start by highlighting specifics of the later study:

“Pronounced rejuvenation effects in male rats prompted us to conduct further confirmatory experiments. A particularly important consideration is the effectiveness of E5 with regards to sex, as sex-dependent rejuvenation by some interventions have previously been reported.

To assess E5’s applicability to both male and female Sprague Dawley rats, we studied 12 males (6 treated with E5, 6 with saline) and 12 females (6 treated with E5, 6 with saline). These rats were treated every 45 days with an injection of E5 or saline. Rats were monitored for 165 days, and blood was drawn at six time points: 0, 15, 30, 60, 150 and 165 days from the first injection.

We observed highly significant improvements in TNF alpha and IL-6 levels for both males and females in the blood of E5-injected rats over that of saline controls. We also observed a substantial improvement in grip strength.

Our study shows age reversal effects in both male and female rats, but E5 is more effective in males.”

Another experimental group was started with old rats of both sexes. Using the human / rat relative clock developed in the original study, a human equivalent age to these rats at 26 months old was ((112.7 weeks / 197.6 weeks maximum rat lifespan) x 122.5 years maximum human lifespan) = 69.8 years:

“To validate our epigenetic clock results, we conducted a second set of E5 experiments with Sprague Dawley rats of both sexes. When these rats turned 26 months old, half (9 rats) received the E5 treatment while the other half (8 rats) received only the control treatment (saline injection). We analyzed methylation data from two blood draws: blood draw before treatment (baseline) and a follow up sample (15 days after the E5/saline treatment).”

Treatment measurements were affected by one female control group outlier. Panels F through J were recalculated after removing the outlier to show significant effects in both sexes:

“A) Final version of the rat clock for blood. Baseline measurement (x-axis) versus follow up measurement (15 days after treatment, y-axis). Points (rats) are colored by treatment: red=treated by E5, black=treated with saline only. Rotated grey numbers underneath each bar reports the group sizes. Each bar plot reports the mean value and one standard error.

B,D,E) Difference between follow up measurement and baseline measurement (y-axis) versus treatment status in B) all rats, D) female rats only, E) male rats only. C) is analogous to B) but uses the pan tissue clock for rats.

Panels in the second row (F,G,H,I,J) are analogous to those in the first row but the analysis omitted one control rat (corresponding to the black dot in the lower right of panel A).”

https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2023.08.06.552148v1 “Reversal of Biological Age in Multiple Rat Organs by Young Porcine Plasma Fraction”

A description of how E5 plasma fraction was made starts on page 16 of the *.pdf file. The next E5 study will be done with dogs per July 2023 updates in blog post comments:

“On E5 our entire team is working hard towards the launch of an old Beagle dogs trial this month. We want to make them really young, healthy, happy, and jumping around like 1 and 2 year olds.

Primary endpoint is safety and toxicology to test various dose strengths and frequencies. Secondary endpoints are more than 20.

As you know, we like to test exhaustively to get a sharper perspective of what’s happening. In rat studies we tested 30 biomarkers, including functional. We are especially keen to check kidney markers.

There are two clocks for dogs we are interested in to get third party confirmation of age reversal. Horvath dog clock is ready and GlycanAge dog clock is under construction.

We are requesting all organizations that support pets and aging to financially support their project of building an accurate dog clock. Not only will it help veterinary aging research like ours, but also all the dog owners that may want to know how much improvement their dog received from treatment. Dr. Matt Kaeberlain is an advisor on their project.”

Neuritogenesis

July 30, 2023July 30, 2023 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Acetylcholine, Amygdala, Brain development, Brainstem, Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Dopamine, Epigenetics, Glutamate, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Immune system, Limbic system, Lower brain, Memory, Neurochemicals, Stress, Thalamus Brain neurons, Control group, Embryo development, Genetic factors, Infants, Neural plasticity, Prefrontal cortex

Three 2023 papers on the initial stage of neuronal differentiation, starting with a rodent study of taurine’s effects:

“We aimed to assess the role of taurine (TAU) in axonal sprouting against cerebral ischemic injury, clarify the function of mitochondria in TAU-induced axonal sprouting, and further determine the underlying potential molecular mechanism.

We determined that TAU improved motor function recovery and restored neurogenesis in ischemic stroke. This possibly occurred via improvements in mitochondrial function.

We investigated that the Sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway exerted an important role in these effects. Our study findings highlighted the novel viewpoint that TAU promoted axonal sprouting by improving Shh-mediated mitochondrial function in cerebral ischemic stroke.”

https://www.scielo.br/j/acb/a/nxKvGXGk9g6gRkHxybMfbYJ/?lang=en “Taurine promotes axonal sprouting via Shh-mediated mitochondrial improvement in stroke”

A rodent study investigated effects of a soy isoflavone gut microbiota metabolite:

“Perinatally-infected adolescents living with HIV-1 (pALHIV) appear uniquely vulnerable to developing substance use disorders (SUD). Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) in the nucleus accumbens core (NAcc), an integrator of cortical and thalamic input, have been implicated as a key structural locus for the pathogenesis of SUD.

Treatment with estrogenic compounds (e.g., 17β-estradiol) induces prominent alterations to neuronal and dendritic spine structure in the NAcc supporting an innovative means to remodel neuronal circuitry. The carcinogenic nature of 17β-estradiol, however, limits its translational utility.

Plant-derived polycyclic phenols, or phytoestrogens, whose chemical structure resembles 17β-estradiol may afford an alternative strategy to target estrogen receptors. The phytoestrogen S-Equol (SE), permeates the blood-brain barrier, exhibits selective affinity for estrogen receptor β (ERβ), and serves as a neuroprotective and/or neurorestorative therapeutic for HIV-1-associated neurocognitive and affective alterations.

Beginning at approximately postnatal day (PD) 28, HIV-1 transgenic (Tg) animals were treated with a daily oral dose of 0.2 mg of SE. The SE dose of 0.2 mg was selected for two primary reasons, including:

A dose-response experimental paradigm established 0.2 mg of SE as the most effective dose for mitigating neurocognitive deficits in sustained attention in the HIV-1 Tg rat; and

The dose, which yielded a daily amount of 0.25–1.0 mg/kg/SE (i.e., approximately 2.5–10 mg in a 60 kg human), is translationally relevant (i.e., well below the daily isoflavone intake of most elderly Japanese.

Daily oral treatment continued through PD 90.

HIV-1 Tg animals exhibited an initial increase in dendrite length (A) and the number of dendritic spines (B) early in development; parameters which subsequently decreased across time. In sharp contrast, dendrite length and the number of dendritic spines were stable across development in control animals.

Targeting these alterations with the selective ERβ agonist SE during the formative period induces long-term modifications to synaptodendritic structure, whereby MSNs in the NAcc in HIV-1 Tg animals treated with SE resemble control animals at PD 180.”

https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/nipt-2023-0008/html “Constitutive expression of HIV-1 viral proteins induces progressive synaptodendritic alterations in medium spiny neurons: implications for substance use disorders”

A rodent brain cell study investigated soy isoflavones’ effects on a different estrogen receptor:

“We evaluated effects of isoflavones using mouse primary cerebellar culture, astrocyte-enriched culture, Neuro-2A clonal cells, and co-culture with neurons and astrocytes. Soybean isoflavone-augmented estradiol mediated dendrite arborization in Purkinje cells.

These results indicate that ERα plays an essential role in isoflavone-induced neuritogenesis. However, G-protein-coupled ER (GPER1) signaling is also necessary for astrocyte proliferation and astrocyte–neuron communication, which may lead to isoflavone-induced neuritogenesis.

We highlight the novel possibility that isoflavones enhance dendritogenesis and neuritogenesis, indicating that they can be a useful supplementary compound during brain development or in the injured brain.”

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/10/9011 “Isoflavones Mediate Dendritogenesis Mainly through Estrogen Receptor α”

Adverse Childhood Experiences, Part 2

July 17, 2023July 18, 2023 gettingwell4 2-3 stars Required further work, Brain development, Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Epigenetics, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Lower brain, Memory, Stress Brain neurons, Critical period, DNA methylation, Embryo development, Empathy, Genetic factors, Infants

A request was made to present studies that investigated epigenetic impacts of corporal punishments or physical trauma to children or adolescents. Here’s a follow-on of the 2015 Grokking an Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) score, since physical abuse is one factor of an ACE score.

1. The largest problem is that a person filling out an ACE questionnaire or Childhood Trauma Questionnaire can’t provide first-hand answers of their own experiences during womb life, infancy, and early childhood. These critical development periods are more impacted by adversity than are later life windows.

Human brains aren’t developed enough before age 3 to provide retrospective answers using cerebral memories. A self-reported ACE score can’t possibly address what happened during the times when we were most vulnerable to disrupted neurodevelopment. And good luck with parents providing factual histories of whether they physically or emotionally neglected, physically or emotionally abused, or otherwise adversely treated their fetus, infant, and young child.

2. Another problem is researchers can pretty much choose whatever questions they want as input criteria. I’ve seen pliable ACE scores developed from 5- to 25-item questionnaires.

Do these questionnaires cover all relevant adverse childhood experiences? For example, are researchers permitted to use as inputs societal-created adversities a child may have lived through such as the Khmer Rouge or Cultural Revolution? Studies are just starting to investigate adverse childhood experiences created by worldwide abuses of authority since 2020.

3. Other problems were discussed in a 2023 paper https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0145213423003162 “Adverse childhood experiences and adult outcomes using a causal framework perspective: Challenges and opportunities” (not freely available), two of which were:

Adding up ACE factors to a cumulative score ignores the impact of synergistic sets. For example, although both cumulative ACE scores are 2, a child who was physically and sexually abused would probably be more adversely affected than a child whose parents divorced or separated, and also had a family member incarcerated.
At any given time point, and especially with older people, there’s a potential selection bias against those most affected by adverse childhood experiences, such as those who died.

Using flawed, squishy, cumulative ACE scores as inputs, here are two 2023 studies that found epigenetic associations:

“We tested the following pre-registered hypotheses: Mothers’ adverse childhood experiences are correlated with DNA methylation (DNAm) in peripheral blood during pregnancy (hypothesis 1) and in cord blood samples from newborn infants (hypothesis 2), and women’s depression and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy mediate the association between mothers’ ACE exposure and prenatal/neonatal DNA methylation (hypothesis 3).

Hypothesis 1: In 896 mother−infant pairs with available methylation and ACE exposure data, there were no significant associations between mothers’ ACE score and DNAm from antenatal peripheral blood, after controlling for covariates.

Hypothesis 2: In infant cord blood, there were 5 CpG sites significantly differentially methylated in relation to mothers’ ACEs (false discovery rate < .05), but only in male offspring. Effect sizes were medium. CpG sites were in genes related to mitochondrial function and neuronal development in the cerebellum.

Hypothesis 3: There was no mediation by maternal anxiety/depression symptoms found between mothers’ ACEs score and DNAm in the significant CpG sites in male cord blood.”

https://www.jaacap.org/article/S0890-8567(23)00313-1/fulltext “Epigenetic Intergenerational Transmission: Mothers’ Adverse Childhood Experiences and DNA Methylation”

“In this study, the effect of cumulative ACEs experienced on human maternal DNAm was estimated while accounting for interaction with domains of ACEs in prenatal peripheral blood mononuclear cell samples. Intergenerational transmission of ACE-associated DNAm was explored used paired maternal and neonatal cord blood samples. Replication in buccal samples was also explored.

We used a four-level categorical indicator variable for ACEs exposure: none (0 ACEs), low (1–3 ACEs), moderate (4–6 ACEs), and high (> 6 ACEs). 🙄

https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-2977515/v1 “Effect of Parental Adverse Childhood Experiences on Intergenerational DNA Methylation Signatures”

Eat broccoli sprouts to protect your brain from stroke

February 4, 2023February 4, 2023 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Lower brain, Stress Brain neurons, Control group, Neural plasticity, Neurodegenerative disease

Starting this blog’s ninth year with a 2022 rodent study of sulforaphane neuroprotection:

“An example of endogenous neuroprotection is ischemia-resistance of the hippocampal regions comprising the CA2, CA3, CA4 and dentate gyrus subfields (here abbreviated to CA2-4,DG) which can be contrasted with the ischemia-vulnerable CA1 region, which is noted in rodents as well as humans.

As with CA2-4,DG, nuclear Nrf2 levels are also higher in the olfactory bulb, while in the cortex, striatum, and cerebellum, they are similar to ones observed in the CA1 region.

We found an in vitro dose-dependent response to administration of sulforaphane on neuronal viability, with an optimal effect noted where the dose was 10 µM. A protective effect was also evident in vivo when a single 5 mg/kg dose of sulforaphane was administered intraperitoneally with delay to ischemia.

Morphology of the CA1 region stratum pyramidale was significantly improved in comparison to ischemia-operated group, with mean numbers of proper cells being 35 ± 19 and 20 ± 7, respectively, for subjects injected during ischemia or 30 min into reperfusion. Morphology of the CA2-4,DG region did not reveal change between the ischemia-operated, SFN-injected, and control groups.

We suggest that high levels of nuclear Nrf2 activity in CA2-4,DG may guarantee resistance of this region to I/R episode, while at the same time offering a potential explanation for the phenomenon of differential sensitivities of hippocampal regions. Our results are in line with the existing view that Nrf2 activation may represent a promising therapeutic strategy against cerebral ischemia.

The uniqueness of Nrf2 lies in its pleiotropic action and subsequent regulation of multiple cytoprotective pathways. This may support more efficient neuroprotection compared to single-target strategies.”

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12035-022-03166-x “Is Nrf2 Behind Endogenous Neuroprotection of the Hippocampal CA2-4,DG Region?”

Winter beach shock therapy

If you were given a lens to see clearly, would you accept it?

October 20, 2022June 13, 2023 gettingwell4 5+ stars Premium, Amygdala, Brainstem, Cerebrum, Cortisol, Epigenetics, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Limbic system, Locus coeruleus, Lower brain, Memory, Neurochemicals, Primal Therapy, Serotonin, Stress Brain neurons, Control group, DNA methylation, Dr. Arthur Janov, Genetic factors, Infants, Prefrontal cortex, Unconscious feelings, Unconscious memories

Two papers, starting with a 2022 rodent study of maternal behaviors’ effects on offspring physiologies:

“Early life adversity (ELA) is a major risk factor for development of pathology. Predictability of parental care may be a distinguishing feature of different forms of ELA.

We tested the hypothesis that changes in maternal behavior in mice would be contingent on the type of ELA experienced, directly comparing predictability of care in limited bedding and nesting (LBN) and maternal separation (MS) paradigms. We then tested whether predictability of ELA environment altered expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone (Crh), a sexually-dimorphic neuropeptide that regulates threat-related learning.

MS was associated with increased expression of Crh-related genes in males, but not females. LBN primarily increased expression of these genes in females, but not males.”

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352289522000595 “Resource scarcity but not maternal separation provokes unpredictable maternal care sequences in mice and both upregulate Crh-associated gene expression in the amygdala”

I came across this first study by it citing a republished version of 2005 epigenetic research from McGill University:

“Early experience permanently alters behavior and physiology. A critical question concerns the mechanism of these environmental programming effects.

We propose that epigenomic changes serve as an intermediate process that imprints dynamic environmental experiences on the fixed genome, resulting in stable alterations in phenotype. These findings demonstrate that structural modifications of DNA can be established through environmental programming and that – in spite of inherent stability of this epigenomic marker – it is dynamic and potentially reversible.”

https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.31887/DCNS.2005.7.2/mmeaney “Environmental programming of stress responses through DNA methylation: life at the interface between a dynamic environment and a fixed genome”

This post commemorates the five-year anniversary of Dr. Arthur Janov’s death. Its title is taken from my reaction to his comment on Beyond Belief: Symptoms of hopelessness. Search his blog for mentions of the second paper’s coauthors, Drs. Meaney and Szyf.

Our lives are substantially a product of our parents’ actualized and unsatisfied needs. Our children and their children are reflections of us with our problems (unfelt needs) or elucidations (felt needs).

What if the price we pay for avoiding and pressuring down our feelings is: A wasted life?

What if the grand hypothesis worth proving is: For one’s life to have meaning, each individual has to regain their feelings?

Sulforaphane nose drops

August 18, 2022August 18, 2022 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Acetylcholine, Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Epigenetics, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Lower brain, Neurochemicals, Stress Control group

This 2022 rodent study compared capabilities of intranasal nanoparticle sulforaphane and free sulforaphane to mitigate brain damage caused by a common cancer treatment:

“Non-invasive intranasal (IN) trafficking of therapeutic agents with nanocarriers can enhance efficacy of drug delivery, biodistribution, bioavailability, and absorption against enzymatic degradation and extracellular transportation. Direct IN trafficking of nanocarriers is expected to reduce drug wastage, administration frequency, and undesirable adverse effects.

The nasal route for brain-targeted delivery of sulforaphane (SF) loaded within iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄-NPs) was based on improving physicochemical stability of SF, and to enhance its bioavailability by avoiding oral route drawbacks like extensive first-pass metabolism and intestinal drug degradation.

Cisplatin (CIS) significantly induced a significant increase in acetylcholinesterase activities and lipid peroxides, and a significant decrement in glutathione and nitric oxide contents. We aimed to explore the nanotherapeutic potential of intranasally delivered SF loaded within Fe₃O₄-NPs (N.SF) against CIS-induced neurotoxicity through different biochemical, behavioral, and histological investigations.

Treatment with N.SF was more capable of mitigating both CIS-induced striatal and cortical injuries. IN treatment with either SF or N.SF showed equal alleviative potential regarding CIS-induced hippocampal or cerebellar injury.

These encouraging results demonstrated the potential use of iron-oxide NPs as neurotherapeutic agents, and confirmed the possibility of developing a novel promising and non-invasive intranasal delivery system for treatment of CIS-induced neurotoxicity.”

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12640-022-00555-x “Neuroprotective Potential of Intranasally Delivered Sulforaphane-Loaded Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Against Cisplatin-Induced Neurotoxicity”

I found this study from it citing a paper in Do broccoli sprouts treat migraines?

Non-patentable boron benefits

August 14, 2022 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Acetylcholine, Amygdala, Cerebellum, Cortisol, Dopamine, Epigenetics, Glutamate, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Immune system, Limbic system, Lower brain, Memory, Neurochemicals, Serotonin, Stress Brain neurons, Control group, Genetic factors, Infants, Neurodegenerative disease, Prefrontal cortex

To follow up Is boron important to health? I’ll highlight a 2022 review of boron intake:

“Boron is essential for activity of several metabolic enzymes, hormones, and micronutrients. It is important for growth and maintenance of bone, reduction in inflammatory biomarkers, and increasing levels of antioxidant enzymes.

The average person’s daily diet contains 1.5 to 3 milligrams of boron. Boron intakes of 1–3 mg/day have been shown to improve bone and brain health in adults when compared to intakes of 0.25–0.50 mg/day.

One week of 10 mg/d boron supplementation resulted in a 20% reduction in inflammatory biomarkers TNF-α, as well as significant reductions (nearly 50%) in plasma concentrations of hs-CRP and IL-6. Calcium fructoborate, a naturally occurring, plant-based boron-carbohydrate complex, had beneficial effects on osteoarthritis (OA) symptoms. A double-blind study in middle-aged patients with primary OA found that all groups except the placebo group saw a reduction in inflammatory biomarkers after 15 days of food supplementation with calcium fructoborate.

Dietary boron intake significantly improves brain function and cognitive functioning in humans. Electroencephalograms showed that boron pharmacological intervention after boron deficiency improved functioning in older men and women, such as less drowsiness and mental alertness, better psychomotor skills (for example, motor speed and dexterity), and better cognitive processing (e.g., attention and short-term memory). Boron compounds can help with both impaired recognition and spatial memory problems.

We discussed the role of boron-based diet in memory, boron and microbiome relation, boron as anti-inflammatory agents, and boron in neurodegenerative diseases. Boron reagents will play a significant role to improve dysbiosis.”

https://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/27/11/3402/htm “The Role of Microbiome in Brain Development and Neurodegenerative Diseases”

Beneficial dietary erucic acid?

July 19, 2022May 21, 2023 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Brain development, Cerebellum, Epigenetics, Lower brain Control group, Corpus callosum, Embryo development, Genetic factors, Infants

A 2022 review to follow up Caution on broccoli seed erucic acid content?:

“Erucic acid is found to cause cardiac lipidosis in young animals, yet direct evidence of cardiac injury does not exist for young humans. Concerns about erucic acid safety and cardiotoxicity have been published in the press which are based on scientific reports in the 1970s that erucic acid disrupted oxidative phosphorylation and lead to accumulation of lipids in rat cardiac tissue.

Spanish toxic oil syndrome was a major concern, leading to questions about erucic acid cardiotoxicity. Yet it was found that not rapeseed oil per se, rather its carcinogen anilin-dye refined derivative caused cardiotoxicity.

Later, it was understood that reduced ATP production with erucic acid treatment was due to unapt isolation of rat cardiac mitochondria and lipid accumulation that was unique to rats that inherently harbour a low β-oxidative peroxisomal activity and tissue-specific metabolism of erucic acid. Similar structural or metabolic perturbations and tissue injuries were not encountered in monkeys, humans, and pigs.

Potential mechanisms regarding antineoplastic effects of erucic acid in brain tumors:

In children (0 to 14 years), medulloblastomas accounted for less than 10% of brain neoplasias in China, African countries, and Ireland. The ratio was in the range 20%–29% in Brazil, Argentina, Thailand, Korea and Poland, the proportion was 30% in Ecuador, 31% in Taiwan and Jordan.

In adults, the ratio of brain neoplasias diagnosed as glioblastoma was:

Below 10% only in China;

In the range 10%–29% in India, Thailand, Malaysia, Nigeria, Algeria, Malta, Costa Rica, Ecuador, and the Russian Federation;

In the range 30%–49% in some South American countries, Singapore, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, Turkey, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, and Spain among others; and

In the range 50%–70% in North America, Puerto Rico, Martinique, Israel, Cyprus, Jordan, Kuwait, and in Oceania.

The low ratio of medulloblastomas in children and of glioblastomas in adult Chinese population cannot be easily attributed to a single genetic and nurture pattern. Very likely, many complex factors interact to explain this difference regarding the Chinese population.

Several hypotheses can be put forward to illuminate the cause of reduced ratios of high grade brain tumors in Chinese which would be of benefit for global reduction and prevention of brain tumors. Erucic acid is very highly consumed in the Chinese diet, and 8-fold higher erucic acid levels exist in Chinese women’s milk in comparison to many other countries.

We hypothesized that dietary erucic acid may be – at least among many factors – associated with reduced ratios of high grade brain tumors in Chinese. If epidemiological and animal studies would prove such an association, an effective, cheap, and relatively non-toxic dietary supplementary strategy may be employed to prevent brain tumors at erucic acid doses lower than those associated with any cardiotoxic effects.”

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11011-022-01022-4 “Could dietary erucic acid lower risk of brain tumors? An epidemiological look to Chinese population with implications for prevention and treatment” (not freely available) Thanks to Dr. Meric Altinoz for providing a copy.

Gut microbiota therapy

June 25, 2022 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Brainstem, Dopamine, Epigenetics, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Immune system, Limbic system, Lower brain, Memory, Serotonin, Stress Control group, Genetic factors, Neural plasticity, Neurodegenerative disease

This June 2022 review cited twenty 2022 papers for relationships between Parkinson’s disease and gut microbiota:

“Clinical diagnosis of PD is based on typical motor symptoms, and novel diagnostic biomarkers have been developed such as imaging markers, and α-synuclein fluid and tissue markers. Multimorbidity of non-motor disorders heighten the risk of adverse outcomes for patients with PD, which usually appear 20 years before onset of motor symptoms.

The gut microbiota is intimately connected to occurrence, development, and progression of PD, especially in early stages. A better understanding of the microbiota–gut–brain axis in PD can provide an opportunity to monitor an individual’s health by manipulating gut microbiota composition.

Several approaches like administration of probiotics, psychobiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics, FMT, and dietary modifications have been tried to mitigate dysbiosis-induced ill effects and alleviate PD progression.

Epidemiological studies have reported that diet affects (positively or negatively) onset of neurodegenerative disorders. Evidence suggests that diet composition’s effects on brain health is not due to diet-induced inflammatory response, but because of its effects on the gut microbiome.

Dysbiotic gut microbiota (including altered microbial metabolites) may play crucial roles in PD via various mechanisms, such as:

Increased intestinal permeability;

Aggravated intestinal inflammation and neuroinflammation;

Abnormal aggregation of α-synuclein fibrils;

Imbalanced oxidative stress; and

Decreased neurotransmitters production.

Future studies are essential to further elucidate cause-effect relationships between gut microbiota and PD, improved PD therapeutic and diagnostic options, disease progression tracking, and patient stratification capabilities to deliver personalized treatment and optimize clinical trial designs.”

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2022.937555/full “Gut Microbiota: A Novel Therapeutic Target for Parkinson’s Disease”

Taurine week #7: Brain

June 18, 2022January 19, 2025 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Acetylcholine, Amygdala, Anterior cingulate cortex, Brain development, Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Dopamine, Epigenetics, Glutamate, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Immune system, Limbic system, Lower brain, Memory, Neurochemicals, Stress, Thalamus Brain neurons, Control group, Embryo development, Genetic factors, Neurodegenerative disease, Prefrontal cortex

Finishing a week’s worth of 2022 taurine research with two reviews of taurine’s brain effects:

“We provide a overview of brain taurine homeostasis, and review mechanisms by which taurine can afford neuroprotection in individuals with obesity and diabetes. Alterations to taurine homeostasis can impact a number of biological processes such as osmolarity control, calcium homeostasis, and inhibitory neurotransmission, and have been reported in both metabolic and neurodegenerative disorders.

Models of neurodegenerative disorders show reduced brain taurine concentrations. On the other hand, models of insulin-dependent diabetes, insulin resistance, and diet-induced obesity display taurine accumulation in the hippocampus. Given cytoprotective actions of taurine, such accumulation of taurine might constitute a compensatory mechanism that attempts to prevent neurodegeneration.

Taurine release is mainly mediated by volume-regulated anion channels (VRAC) that are activated by hypo-osmotic conditions and electrical activity. They can be stimulated via glutamate metabotropic (mGluR) and ionotropic receptors (mainly NMDA and AMPA), adenosine A₁ receptors (A₁R), and metabotropic ATP receptors (P2Y).

Taurine mediates its neuromodulatory effects by binding to GABA_A, GABA_B, and glycine receptors. While taurine binding to GABA_A and GABA_B is weaker than to GABA, taurine is a rather potent ligand of the glycine receptor. Reuptake of taurine occurs via taurine transporter TauT.

Cytoprotective actions of taurine contribute to brain health improvements in subjects with obesity and diabetes through various mechanisms that improve neuronal function, such as:

Modulating inhibitory neurotransmission, which promotes an excitatory–inhibitory balance;

Stimulating antioxidant systems; and

Stabilizing mitochondria energy production and Ca²⁺ homeostasis.”

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/14/6/1292/htm “Taurine Supplementation as a Neuroprotective Strategy upon Brain Dysfunction in Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes”

A second review focused on taurine’s secondary bile acids produced by gut microbiota:

“Most neurodegenerative disorders are diseases of protein homeostasis, with misfolded aggregates accumulating. The neurodegenerative process is mediated by numerous metabolic pathways, most of which lead to apoptosis. Hydrophilic bile acids, particularly tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA), have shown important anti-apoptotic and neuroprotective activities, with numerous experimental and clinical evidence suggesting their possible therapeutic use as disease-modifiers in neurodegenerative diseases.

Biliary acids may influence each of the following three mechanisms through which interactions within the brain-gut-microbiota axis take place: neurological, immunological, and neuroendocrine. These microbial metabolites can act as direct neurotransmitters or neuromodulators, serving as key modulators of the brain-gut interactions.

The gut microbial community, through their capacity to produce bile acid metabolites distinct from the liver, can be thought of as an endocrine organ with potential to alter host physiology, perhaps to their own favour. Hydrophilic bile acids, currently regarded as important hormones, exert modulatory effects on gut microbiota composition to produce secondary bile acids which seem to bind a number of receptors with a higher affinity than primary biliary acids, expressed on many different cells.

TUDCA regulates expression of genes involved in cell cycle regulation and apoptotic pathways, promoting neuronal survival. TUDCA:

Improves protein folding capacity through its chaperoning activity, in turn reducing protein aggregation and deposition;

Reduces reactive oxygen species production, leading to protection against mitochondrial dysfunction;

Ameliorates endoplasmic reticulum stress; and

Inhibits expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, exerting an anti-neuroinflammatory effect.

Although Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and cerebral ischemia have different disease progressions, they share similar pathways which can be targeted by TUDCA. This makes this bile acid a potentially strong therapeutic option to be tested in human diseases. Clinical evidence collected so far has reported comprehensive data on ALS only.”

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9166453/ “Tauroursodeoxycholic acid: a potential therapeutic tool in neurodegenerative diseases”

Taurine week #6: Stress

June 17, 2022August 8, 2022 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Cortisol, Epigenetics, Glutamate, Hippocampus, Immune system, Limbic system, Lower brain, Neurochemicals, Serotonin, Stress Antidepressants, Brain neurons, Control group, Genetic factors, Neural plasticity, Prefrontal cortex

Two 2022 rodent studies of taurine’s associations with long-term stress, starting with a chronic restraint stress model:

“We show that chronic restraint stress can lead to hyperalgesia accompanied by changes in gut microbiota that have significant gender differences. Corresponding changes of bacteria can further induce hyperalgesia and affect different serum metabolism in mice of the corresponding sex.

Different serum metabolites between pseudo-germ-free mice receiving fecal microbiota transplantation from the chronic restraint stress group and those from the control group were mainly involved in bile secretion and steroid hormone biosynthesis for male mice, and in taurine and hypotaurine metabolism and tryptophan metabolism for female mice.

Effects of gut microbiota transplantation on serum metabolomics of female host: Taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, serotonergic synapse, arachidonic acid metabolism, and choline metabolism in cancer were the five identified pathways in which these different metabolites were enriched.

Taurine and hypotaurine play essential roles in anti-inflammation, anti-hypertension, anti-hyperglycemia, and analgesia. Taurine can be used as a diagnostic index for fibromyalgia syndrome and neuropathic pain.

These findings improve our understanding of sexual dimorphism in gut microbiota in stress-induced hyperalgesia and the effect of gut microbiota on blood metabolic traits. Follow-up research will investigate causal relationships between them.”

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1043661822000743 “Gut microbiota and its role in stress-induced hyperalgesia: Gender-specific responses linked to different changes in serum metabolites”

Human equivalents:

A 7-8 month-old mouse would be a 38-42 year-old human.
A 14-day stress period is about two years for humans.

A second study used a chronic social defeat stress model:

“The level of taurine in extracellular fluid of the cerebral medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) was significantly reduced in mice with chronic social defeat stress (CSDS)-induced depression. We found that taurine supplementation effectively rescued immobility time during a tail suspension assay and improved social avoidance behaviors in CSDS mice.

Male C57BL/6 J mice (∼ 23 g) and male CD-1 mice aged 7–8 months (∼ 45 g) were used. CD-1 mice were screened for aggressive behavior during social interactions for three consecutive days before the start of the social defeat sessions. Experimental C57BL/6 J mice were subjected to physical interactions with a novel CD-1 mouse for 10 min once per day over 10 consecutive days.

We found significant reductions in taurine and betaine levels in mPFC interstitial fluid of CSDS mice compared with control mice.

We additionally investigated levels of interstitial taurine in chronic restraint stress (CRS) mice, another depressive animal model. After 14 days of CRS treatment, mice showed typical depression-like behaviors, including decreased sucrose preference and increased immobility time. mPFC levels of interstitial taurine were also significantly decreased in CRS mice.

Taurine treatment protected CSDS mice from impairments in dendritic complexity, spine density, and proportions of different types of spines. Expression of N-methyl D-aspartate receptor subunit 2A, an important synaptic receptor, was largely restored in the mPFC of these mice after taurine supplementation.

These results demonstrated that taurine exerted an antidepressive effect by protecting cortical neurons from dendritic spine loss and synaptic protein deficits.”

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10571-022-01218-3 “Taurine Alleviates Chronic Social Defeat Stress-Induced Depression by Protecting Cortical Neurons from Dendritic Spine Loss”

Human equivalents:

A 7-8 month-old mouse would be a 38-42 year-old human.
A 500 mg/kg taurine dose injected intraperitoneally is (.081 x 500 mg) x 70KG = 2.835 g.
A 10-day stress period is about a year and a half for humans.

Don’t think aggressive humans would have to be twice as large to stress those around them. There may be choices other than enduring a year and a half of that.

The misnomer of nonessential amino acids

June 4, 2022June 4, 2022 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Amygdala, Brain development, Brainstem, Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Epigenetics, Glutamate, Hippocampus, Immune system, Limbic system, Lower brain, Memory, Neurochemicals, Stress Control group, Embryo development, Neural plasticity, Neurodegenerative disease, Prefrontal cortex

Three papers, starting with a 2022 review:

“Ideal diets must provide all physiologically and nutritionally essential amino acids (AAs).

Proposed optimal ratios and amounts of true digestible AAs in diets during different phases of growth and production. Because dynamic requirements of animals for dietary AAs are influenced by a plethora of factors, data below as well as the literature serve only as references to guide feeding practices and nutritional research.

Nutritionists should move beyond the ‘ideal protein’ concept to consider optimum ratios and amounts of all proteinogenic AAs in diets for mammals, birds, and aquatic animals, and, in the case of carnivores, also taurine. This will help formulate effectively low-protein diets for livestock (including swine and high-producing dairy cattle), poultry, fish, and crustaceans, as well as zoo and companion animals.”

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/15353702221082658 “The ‘ideal protein’ concept is not ideal in animal nutrition”

A second 2022 review focused on serine:

“The main dietary source of L-serine is protein, in which L-serine content ranges between 2 and 5%. At the daily intake of ~1 g protein per kg of body weight, the amount of serine obtained from food ranges between 1.4 and 3.5 g (13.2–33.0 mmol) per day in an adult.

Mechanisms of potential benefits of supplementing L-serine include increased synthesis of sphingolipids, decreased synthesis of 1-deoxysphingolipids, decrease in homocysteine levels, and increased synthesis of cysteine and its metabolites, including glutathione. L-serine supplementation has been suggested as a rational therapeutic approach in several disorders, particularly primary disorders of L-serine synthesis, neurodegenerative disorders, and diabetic neuropathy.

Unfortunately, the number of clinical studies evaluating dietary supplementation of L-serine as a possible therapy is small. Studies examining therapeutic effects of L-serine in CNS injury and chronic renal diseases, in which it is supposed that L-serine weakens glutamate neurotoxicity and lowers homocysteine levels, respectively, are missing.”

https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/14/9/1987/htm “Serine Metabolism in Health and Disease and as a Conditionally Essential Amino Acid”

A 2021 review subject was D-serine, L-serine’s D-isoform:

“The N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptor (NMDAR) and its co-agonist D-serine are currently of great interest as potential important contributors to cognitive function in normal aging and dementia. D-serine is necessary for activation of NMDAR and in maintenance of long-term potentiation, and is involved in brain development, neuronal connectivity, synaptic plasticity, and regulation of learning and memory.

The source of D-amino acids in mammals was historically attributed to diet or intestinal bacteria until racemization of L-serine by serine racemase was identified as the endogenous source of D-serine. The enzyme responsible for catabolism (breakdown) of D-serine is D-amino acid oxidase; this enzyme is most abundant in cerebellum and brainstem, areas with low levels of D-serine.

Activation of the NMDAR co-agonist-binding site by D-serine and glycine is mandatory for induction of synaptic plasticity. D-serine acts primarily at synaptic NMDARs whereas glycine acts primarily at extrasynaptic NMDARs.

In normal aging there is decreased expression of serine racemase and decreased levels of D-serine and down-regulation of NMDARs, resulting in impaired synaptic plasticity and deficits in learning and memory. In contrast, in AD there appears to be activation of serine racemase, increased levels of D-serine and overstimulation of NMDARs, resulting in cytotoxicity, synaptic deficits, and dementia.”

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.754032/full “An Overview of the Involvement of D-Serine in Cognitive Impairment in Normal Aging and Dementia”

Are blood epigenetic clock measurements optimal?

April 15, 2022April 16, 2022 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Cerebellum, Epigenetics, Immune system, Lower brain Brain neurons, Control group, DNA methylation, Genetic factors, Neurodegenerative disease, Prefrontal cortex

This 2022 human study investigated tissue-specific epigenetic clock measurements:

“We used DNA methylation data representing 11 human tissues (adipose, blood, bone marrow, heart, kidney, liver, lung, lymph node, muscle, spleen, and pituitary gland) to quantify the extent to which epigenetic age acceleration (EAA) in one tissue correlates with EAA in another tissue.

Epigenetic age was moderately correlated across tissues:

Blood had the greatest number and degree of correlation, most notably with spleen and bone marrow. Blood did not correlate with epigenetic age of liver.

EAA in liver was weakly correlated with EAA in kidney, adipose, lung, and bone marrow.

Hypertension was associated with EAA in several tissues, consistent with multiorgan impacts of this illness.

HIV infection was associated with positive age acceleration in kidney and spleen.

Men were found to exhibit higher EAA than women across all tissues when analyzed together. Significant results were also observed in individual tissues (muscle, spleen, and lymph nodes).

Blood alone will often fail to detect EAA in other tissues. It will be advisable to profile several sources of DNA (including blood, buccal cells, adipose, and skin) to get a comprehensive picture of the epigenetic aging state of an individual.”

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11357-022-00560-0 “HIV, pathology and epigenetic age acceleration in different human tissues”

CD38 and balance

February 14, 2022July 19, 2023 gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Epigenetics, Glutamate, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus, Immune system, Limbic system, Lower brain, Neurochemicals, Stress, Telomeres Brain neurons, Control group, Genetic factors, Neurodegenerative disease

I’ll highlight this 2022 review’s relationships between inflammation and cluster of differentiation 38:

“We review the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) catabolizing enzyme CD38, which plays critical roles in pathogenesis of diseases related to infection, inflammation, fibrosis, metabolism, and aging.

NAD is a cofactor of paramount importance for an array of cellular processes related to mitochondrial function and metabolism, redox reactions, signaling, cell division, inflammation, and DNA repair. Dysregulation of NAD is associated with multiple diseases. Since CD38 is the main NADase in mammalian tissues, its contribution to pathological processes has been explored in multiple disease models.

CD38 is upregulated in a cell-dependent manner by several stimuli in the presence of pro-inflammatory or secreted senescence factors or in response to a bacterial infection, retinoic acid, or gonadal steroids. CD38 is stimulated in a cell-specific manner by lipopolysaccharide, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6, and interferon-γ.

CD38 plays a critical role in inflammation, migration, and immunometabolism, but equally important is resolution of the inflammatory response which left unchecked leads to loss of self-tolerance, tissue infiltration of lymphocytes, and circulation of autoantibodies.

Depending upon context, CD38 can either promote or protect against an autoimmune response.

Chronic mucosal inflammation and tissue damage characteristic of inflammatory bowel disease predisposes IBD patients to development of colorectal cancer, and the risks increase with duration, extent, and severity of inflammation.

Pulmonary fibrosis occurs in the presence of unresolved inflammation and dysregulated tissue repair, and results from an array of injurious stimuli including infection, toxicant exposure, adverse effects of drugs, and autoimmune response.

Modulating CD38 and NAD levels in kidney disease may provide therapeutic approaches for prevention of inflammatory conditions of the kidney.

Inflammation as well as evidence of senescence are present in pathophysiology of chronic liver diseases that progress to cirrhosis.

Inflammation-associated metabolic diseases impair vascular function. Chronic inflammation can lead to vascular senescence and dysfunction.

One cause of NAD decline during aging is due to increase of NAD breakdown in the presence of increased CD38 expression and activity on immune cells, thus linking inflammaging with tissue NAD decline. Other sources of NAD decline include increased DNA-damage requiring PARP1 activation, and decreased NAMPT levels leading to diminished NAD synthesis through the salvage pathway.

Inflammation is among the major risk factors that predispose organisms to age-associated diseases. During aging, accumulation of senescent cells creates an environment rich in proinflammatory signals, leading to ‘inflammaging.’ Metabolically active cells lose their replicative capacity by entering an irreversible quiescent state, and are considered both a cause and a consequence of inflammaging.

Recent findings uncover a major role of CD38 in inflammation and senescence, showing that age-related NAD⁺ decline and the sterile inflammation of aging are partially mediated by a senescence / senescence associated secretory phenotype (SASP)-induced accumulation of CD38⁺ inflammatory cells in tissues. Given the clear association between the phenomenon of inflammaging, senescence, and CD38, as well as the impact of CD38 on degradation of NAD and the NAD precursor NMN, future studies should focus on CD38 as a druggable target in viral illnesses.”

https://journals.physiology.org/doi/abs/10.1152/ajpcell.00451.2021 “The CD38 glycohydrolase and the NAD sink: implications for pathological conditions”

We extend good-vs.-bad thinking to nature. Does that paradigm explain much, though?

All pieces of a puzzle are important. Otherwise, evolution would have eliminated what wasn’t necessary for its purposes.

Restoring balance to an earlier phenotype suits my purposes. Don’t want to eliminate inflammatory responses, but instead, calm them down so that they’re evoked appropriately.