Month: February 2015

Hippocampus replays memories and preplays to extend memories into future scenarios

gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Memory

This 2013 MIT rodent study of the hippocampus portion of the limbic system focused on the “place” cells in the CA1 segment of the hippocampus.

During rest and sleep, the subjects’ hippocampi replayed and consolidated memories. They also preplayed events in the place cells to imagine future scenarios of “novel spatial experiences of similar distinctiveness and complexity.”

Hippocampal preplaying was advantageous when venturing into new locations because:

“The selection of specific sequences from a larger preconfigured repertoire confers the hippocampal network with the capacity to rapidly encode multiple parallel novel experiences.”

http://www.pnas.org/content/110/22/9100.full “Distinct preplay of multiple novel spatial experiences in the rat”

Emotional memories and out-of-body–induced hippocampal amnesia

gettingwell4 5+ stars Premium, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Memory, Stress

I was happy to see that the researchers in this 2014 Swedish human study included emotional memories when studying the hippocampus. They demonstrated that including emotional memories wasn’t that difficult to do.

In fact, this study’s researchers deemed emotional memories to be necessary in order to properly study the hippocampus, as evidenced by this statement about the experiment’s scripts:

“The selected life events had a moderate emotional level to ensure episodic long-term memory encoding.”

It made me wonder whether there are scientific bases for why other researchers go to such lengths to avoid including emotions in human memory studies.

Also:

“The experiments revealed two important findings. First, the behavioral results showed that episodic encoding of life events requires perceiving the world from the first-person perspective centered on one’s real body, and violations of this basic condition produced impaired episodic recall, indicative of fragmented encoding.

Second, the brain imaging data demonstrated that encoding events experienced out-of body specifically impacts the activation of the left posterior hippocampus during retrieval, suggesting an impaired hippocampal binding mechanism during encoding.

These findings are fundamentally important, as they suggest a link between the ongoing perceptual experiences of the body and the world from the first-person perspective and the hippocampal episodic memory system.”

To conclude:

“Given the apparent requirement of a natural first-person perspective between the body and the world for intact hippocampal memory function, a dissociative out-of-body experience during an acutely stressful event could, by itself, impair the encoding mechanism and produce fragmented, spatiotemporally disorganized memories.”

http://www.pnas.org/content/111/12/4421.full “Out-of-body–induced hippocampal amnesia”

Similarity in form and function of the hippocampus in rodents, monkeys, and humans

gettingwell4 2-3 stars Required further work, Brain development, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Stress , ,

This 2013 study had something for the anti-evolutionists to chew on.

Is it anti-evolutionary for human brain and behavior researchers to not be informed by animal studies such as those that show prenatal hippocampal damage done to the fetus by the mother’s environment?

http://www.pnas.org/content/110/Supplement_2/10365.full “Similarity in form and function of the hippocampus in rodents, monkeys, and humans”

Are 50 Shades of Grey behaviors learned in infancy?

gettingwell4 5+ stars Premium, Amygdala, Brain development, Cerebrum, Cortisol, Epigenetics, Hypothalamus, Limbic system, Lower brain, Memory, Neurochemicals, Primal Therapy, Serotonin, Stress , , , , , ,

Ever wonder how someone could become attached to their early childhood abuser?

Ever wonder what underlying neurobiological conditions may account for the popularity of Fifty Shades of Grey?

This 2014 rodent study “Enduring good memories of infant trauma” linked below showed how trauma changed infants’ limbic system and lower brains. As adults, they derived a neurochemical benefit from re-experiencing the traumatic conditions:

“Trauma and pain experienced in infancy clearly led to higher rates of adult rat depression-like behavior..(but) the infant brain has limited ability to link trauma to fear areas in the brain, such as the amygdala.

These results are surprising because cues associated with trauma experienced as adults provoke fear and do not rescue depressive behavior.

It is possible that giving SSRI medications to children could be detrimental to mental health in adulthood,” Dr. Sullivan says. “We believe that our research offers the first evidence for the impact of serotonin pathways.

The infant trauma increases serotonin to produce brain programming of later life depression, and the infant trauma cue increases serotonin to alleviate the adult depressive like symptoms.”

As the study may apply to humans, let’s say that as an infant, someone was traumatized by a caregiver who, for example, bound them too tightly and left them alone for too long. What adult behaviors and other symptoms may develop as results? The person may:

  • Show depression-like symptoms that would strangely be alleviated by being bound tightly and left alone for an extended period.
  • Develop attachments to people who treated them poorly in a way that triggered them to re-experience their early childhood traumas.
  • Feel their mood lift when their infancy traumas were cued.
  • Be unable to explain and integrate with their cerebrum what was going on with their limbic system and lower brains.
  • Be caught in a circle of acting out their feelings and impulses, with unfulfilling results.

Isn’t it curious that this acting-out behavior – driven by unconscious memories of traumatic conditions – is a subject for popular entertainment? It may have resonated with personal experiences of the people who read the books and watched the movie.

What about people who want to be relieved of their symptomatic behavior? Is it a justifiable practice:

  • To pass affected people over to talk therapies that aren’t interested in directly treating the cause – a neurobiological condition that exists in the limbic system and lower brains – only the symptoms?
  • To drug affected people with the neurochemicals that their condition makes scarce – the symptoms – instead of addressing the source?

A principle of Dr. Arthur Janov’s Primal Therapy is that people are capable of treating their own originating neurobiological conditions. One of the therapeutic results is that the patient is relieved of being caught in endless circles of acting-out behavior.

That way we can have our own lives, and not be driven by what happened during early stages of our lives.

http://www.pnas.org/content/112/3/881.full “Enduring good memories of infant trauma: Rescue of adult neurobehavioral deficits via amygdala serotonin and corticosterone interaction”

Problematic research on memory

gettingwell4 < 0 Detracted from science, Cerebrum, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Memory

This 2013 Harvard human study investigated brain areas that stabilized and updated memories when reactivated:

“The timing of neural recruitment and the way in which memories were reactivated contributed to differences in whether memory reactivation led to distortions or not.

Stronger reliving improved memory.”

However, like researchers often do, they stripped all emotional memory content out of the study, presumably because messy feelings would confound their conclusions. The study used non-emotional pictures only.

The researchers wanted to apply this study to eyewitness accounts. What are the chances that an eyewitness to a murder or a violent accident or crime would have a non-emotional memory of the event?

The study’s exclusion of emotional memories called into doubt that the finding “stronger reliving improved memory” also applied to reliving emotional memories. The categorical statements the researchers claimed about memory, in particular about the hippocampus – the center of emotional memories – weren’t shown to be applicable to emotional memories.

Also, the researchers didn’t include areas of the limbic system, other than the hippocampus, that would likely participate in the reliving of emotional memories. The Making lasting memories: Remembering the significant summary study cited many studies that provided evidence of other brain areas’ involvement.

The researchers had too narrow a basis for a finding that applied across the spectrum of what can be termed memory.

http://www.pnas.org/content/110/49/19671.full “Neural mechanisms of reactivation-induced updating that enhance and distort memory”

Making lasting memories: Remembering the significant

gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Amygdala, Cerebrum, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Memory, Stress

This 2013 article summarized 158 studies related to the roles of regions in the limbic system and memory:

“Episodic memory is the capacity to recall specific experiences and to re-experience individual events.

The findings of both animal and human studies provide compelling evidence that stress-induced activation of the amygdala and its interactions with other brain regions involved in processing memory play a critical role in ensuring that emotionally significant experiences are well-remembered.”

http://www.pnas.org/content/110/Supplement_2/10402.full “Making lasting memories: Remembering the significant”

Our memories have contexts with specific places and times

gettingwell4 5+ stars Premium, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Memory

This 2014 rodent study was of the place aspect of a memory’s context. The researchers found that the CA3 segment of the hippocampus stored a unique representation of the location where the memory was formed:

“Place cells are hippocampal cells (in CA3) that fire specifically when the animal is at a certain location.

Form unique representations for every single environment.

When the animal was introduced to one of the rooms a second time the spatial map from the first exposure was reactivated.”

Our memories are formed within a specific context tied in the time aspect of a memory’s context:

“Hippocampal neurons not only track time, but do so only when specific contextual information (e.g., object identity/location) is cued.”

Our memories have contexts with specific places and times. Accessing a memory’s specific context would be a necessary part of accessing a full memory.

http://www.pnas.org/content/111/52/18428.full “Place cells in the hippocampus: Eleven maps for eleven rooms”

Our memories are formed within a specific context

gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Memory

This 2014 primate study provided evidence that our memories are formed within a specific context:

“The hippocampus, a structure known to be essential to form episodic memories, possesses neurons that explicitly mark moments in time.

We add a previously unidentified finding to this work by showing that individual primate hippocampal neurons not only track time, but do so only when specific contextual information (e.g., object identity/location) is cued.”

As the study may apply to humans, it would follow that accessing a memory’s specific context would be a necessary part of accessing a full memory.

http://www.pnas.org/content/111/51/18351.full “Context-dependent incremental timing cells in the primate hippocampus”

Sorry to disable comments, but this post has somehow become a spam target. Readers can comment on Our memories have contexts with specific places and times which incorporates this study’s findings.

The need for a mother’s love

gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Brain development

BabyGorilla
This 2014 wild chimpanzee study demonstrated how necessary it was to have a mother’s “nourishment, transportation, warmth, protection, and socialization,” in other words, a mother’s love, during infancy and early childhood.

http://www.pnas.org/content/111/51/18189.full “Early social exposure in wild chimpanzees: Mothers with sons are more gregarious than mothers with daughters”

Problematic research on human brain development

gettingwell4 < 0 Detracted from science, Brain development, Cerebrum, Limbic system , ,

This 2013 UK human study provided details of the growths of infants’ cerebral and limbic system structures. With 55 of the 65 infants in the study born prematurely, the UK researchers found:

“Rapidly developing cortical microstructure is vulnerable to the effects of premature birth, suggesting a mechanism for the adverse effects of preterm delivery on cognitive function.”

The infants’ first set of measurements were taken from 27 to 46 weeks after birth. Follow-up measurements were taken when the infants were two years old.

Only the politically-correct adverse effects on brain development were included in the study, which led to the researchers making only politically-correct findings. Is this what we want from publicly funded scientific research?

  • Although 40 of the 65 infants experienced Caesarian deliveries, no attempt was made by the researchers to study any effects on brain development of their delivery method, an omission presumably due to the political incorrectness of suggesting any adverse effects to non-vaginal deliveries.
  • Similarly disregarded for analysis were the effects on brain development in 14 infants of preeclampsia, a serious complication of pregnancy associated with the development of high blood pressure and protein in the urine.
  • Also disregarded for analysis were the effects on brain development in 13 infants of chorioamnionitis, a condition in pregnant women in which the membranes that surround the fetus and the amniotic fluid are infected by bacteria.

Further, was this all we should expect from the peer review process? The data was presumably there for the reviewers to go back to the researchers and suggest analysis of something other than the predetermined agenda.

http://www.pnas.org/content/110/23/9541.full “Development of cortical microstructure in the preterm human brain”

Metabolic costs and evolutionary implications of human brain development

gettingwell4 2-3 stars Required further work, Brain development

This 2014 human study framed many of the other studies that relate to children’s brain development:

“The researchers found instead that the brain maxes out its glucose use at age 5. At age 4 the brain consumes glucose at a rate comparable to 66 percent of the body’s resting metabolic rate (43 percent of the body’s total energy expenditure).

To compensate for these heavy energy demands of our big brains, children grow more slowly and are less physically active during this age range.”

http://www.pnas.org/content/111/36/13010.full “Metabolic costs and evolutionary implications of human brain development”

Conscious mental states should not be the first-choice explanation of behavior

gettingwell4 4-5 stars Advanced knowledge, Amygdala, Cerebrum, Hippocampus, Limbic system, Memory , ,

Here are some 2014 ruminations by Joseph LeDoux, the grandfather of studies of the amygdala. He attempted to disambiguate feeling brain structures’ activations and responses from ideas of what feelings are, specifically regarding fear:

“Damage to the hippocampus in humans disrupts explicit conscious memory of having been conditioned but has no effect on fear conditioning itself, whereas damage to the amygdala disrupts fear conditioning but not the conscious memory of having been conditioned.

Conscious mental states should not, in the absence of direct evidence, be the first-choice explanation of behavior.

Neither amygdala activity nor amygdala-controlled responses are telltale signatures of fearful feelings.

Conscious fear can cause us to act in certain ways, but it is not the cause of the expression of defensive behaviors and physiological responses elicited by conditioned or unconditioned threats.”

http://www.pnas.org/content/111/8/2871.full “Coming to terms with fear”

Problematic research with telomere length

gettingwell4 < 0 Detracted from science, Stress, Telomeres , ,

This 2014 study purportedly linked the effect of shorter telomere length in children to twin causes of a disadvantaged social environment and genetics. Two questionable areas were even more egregious than the study’s lack of a control group.

The first questionable area was that the researchers purposely measured telomere length using methods that couldn’t be directly compared with the telomere length measurements found in almost all other telomere studies. There was no attempt to make findings equivalent, no map with cited studies! They offered up rationale after rationale, but the direct incomparability with other studies remained.

The largest questionable area was the way the researchers produced the study’s concluding sentence:

“We suggest that an individual’s genetic architecture moderates the magnitude and direction of the physiological response to exogenous stressors.”

The researchers’ process deliberately skewed the sample of forty 9-year old boys. Next, they split this forty-member sample in half according to maternal depression! Maternal depression is an experimentally proven contributor to epigenetic changes that are detrimental to developing fetuses, infants, and young children.

The researchers asserted that the results of compounding their questionable choices represented something about stress and genetics in a larger population of children.

Of course, “an individual’s genetic architecture moderates the magnitude and direction of the physiological response to exogenous stressors.” These researchers didn’t do the work to determine whether it was the genetic architecture that the 9-year-olds were either epigenetically changed into or conceived.

I presume that this additional work on genetic architecture wasn’t pursued by the researchers because it may not produce the race-baiting headlines of the press coverage this study achieved. If the additional work pointed to epigenetic causes of adverse effects, the headline may have been non-politically correct like “Maternal depression and poor caregiving damages fetuses, infants, and young children.”

Was this study published to further an agenda? If so, did this study also represent a failure of the peer review process?

Was it predetermined that this study would be published in PNAS regardless of its methods? Were the researchers and reviewers even interested in advancing science?

http://www.pnas.org/content/111/16/5944.full “Social disadvantage, genetic sensitivity, and children’s telomere length”

Shorter telomere length in older men but not older women

gettingwell4 2-3 stars Required further work, Cortisol, Immune system, Neurochemicals, Stress, Telomeres

This 2014 UK human study was the first on telomere length I’ve curated, so here’s some background information:

“Telomeres are..structures..that cap the ends of..chromosomes, protecting them from end-to-end fusion and degradation during cell division.

Human telomeric DNA naturally shortens with age during..cell divisions and as a result of oxidative attack.

At critical shortness, telomeres exhibit impaired function, leading to genomic instability, apoptosis, and cell senescence, often with altered transcriptional programming and mitochondrial dysfunction.

In humans, mutations that directly compromise telomere maintenance cause premature mortality and onset of a spectrum of diseases overlapping with the age-related diseases common in the population.

Shorter telomere length in white blood cells is linked and, in some cases, anticipates aging-related morbidity and mortality from conditions with immune system involvement, such as infectious diseases, cancer, and cardiovascular diseases, as well as risk factors, including hypertension, diabetes, obesity, and smoking.

A critical determinant of telomere length is the enzyme telomerase, which has the capacity to add..onto the..ends of telomeric DNA, extending telomere length and promoting genomic stability.

Acute mental stress appears to increase telomerase enzymatic activity at least transiently, and it has been suggested that high telomerase activity in conjunction with shorter telomere length may be indicative of a stressed system.”

The study put UK civil service men and women ages 54 through 76 through a series of stress tests. They found that men with longer telomeres had quicker recovery times than did men with shorter telomeres.

Men with shorter telomeres and low telomerase activity also had quicker recovery times than did men with shorter telomeres and high telomerase activity:

“In addition, we found that the (shorter telomeres and high telomerase activity men) had blunted reactivity to acute stress in diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, and cortisol.”

No telomere-based differences occurred with women:

“The explanation for the sex difference in response profiles in our study is not clear. Hormonal processes are unlikely to be directly responsible, because women in this study were postmenopausal.”

http://www.pnas.org/content/111/12/4519.full “Shorter telomeres with high telomerase activity are associated with raised allostatic load and impoverished psychosocial resources”